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What do you think
the world would be like if dinosaurs
had survived?
Answer:
If many groups of dinosaurs did
not go extinct, I think that our
world would be quite different today.
Large mammals probably would not
have evolved-perhaps including large
primates like ourselves. It is clear
that mammals evolved to large body
sizes only after the dinosaurs went
extinct. Of course, there were many
ecological crises (that is, bad
wreather and hard times) during
the mammal era - like the ice ages.
It is not clear that all, or most,
of the dinosaurs would also have
survived these trying times.
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Is there anything
we can learn about extinct animals
that will help us to prevent other
animals from becoming extinct
in the future? How does it help
us to learn about creatures that
lived more than 90 million years
ago?
Answer:
The most important things that
we learn with fossils and the
rocks in which they are buried
is the things that we can't learn
from living animals - like, how
big can a land animal get? Or,
how long does a species tend to
last? Or, what events are responsible
for extinction? Regarding extinction,
we really don't know exactly why
most species have gone extinct,
because the likely factors (disease,
famine, bad weather) are usually
not preserved. But we can say,
sometimes, why the big extinction
events occurred. Clearly, an asteroid
played a big role in the extinction
of the last dinosaurs, and the
advance of the glaciers and human
hunting clearly played the biggest
roles in the extinction of many
large animals several thousand
years ago. There is no way to
prepare in advance for an asteroid
impact, although they are so rare
that we don't have to worry about
it now. We need to keep wild areas
as big as possible and our pollution
of the environment as low as possible
if we expect many animals alive
to today to be here tomorrow.
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Did dinosaurs
have eyelids and eyelashes?
Answer:
Well, yes and no. Eyelids that
move up and down like ours with
eyelashes are found only in mammals.
Remember that mammals, unlike
birds, reptiles or dinosaurs,
have hair, and that includes eyelashes.
Also, our eyelids are also characteristic
of mammals. They are very talented
- we can wink, squeeze our eye
tightly shut, or go bug-eyed.
Your dog, typically, has no problems
raising one eyebrow and eyelid.
Reptiles, and we presume dinosaurs,
were different. Some reptiles
have a thin membrane that moves
sideways over the eyeball. Others
can close their eyes but have
eye flaps rather than folding
eyelids. I am sure that some dinosaurs
had similar eyelids to those we
find in reptiles today and others
had no eyelids at all.
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If you found a
dinosaur with one or more bones
missing, would you rather take
the same type of bone from another
dinosaur of the same species to
replace the missing ones, or make
fake bones?
Answer:
We never make a fake (that is,
sculpted) bone for a missing bone
with no idea of what the missing
bone would look like. Here is
my wish list when I have a missing
bone - from best case to worst:
Best to find the missing bone
in a second individual of the
same species that is also the
same size; that way, you simply
add the bone to the skeleton.
Next best is to find the missing
bone in another individual of
the same species of different
size (for example, a juvenile);
that way, all you need to do is
change the size of the bone but
not its shape. Third best, is
when you find the missing bone
in a closely related species -
say a bone of Allosaurus for a
missing bone of Tyrannosaurus.
Worst is when you need to make
a bone based on only a distant
relative. That way, you are least
sure of what the missing bone
looked like.
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What do you give
back to the communities where
you are digging? What do you share
with them? Have you ever had any
serious problems with the people
who live where you are working?
Answer:
The nomads who live in the areas
where we are working now know
about dinosaurs and know about
our work. We just finished making
a small dinosaur park just outside
the oasis of Marandet, where tourists
can visit to see the bones of
the giant Jobaria in place. These
are spectacular to see at the
foot of the big desert cliff right
next to fossilized tree trunks.
The nomads from the town will
function as guides for visitors,
and we prepared a guidebook for
them with the history of the area
and the kinds of fossils one can
see there. We were all thrilled
that our research could result
in such a great development for
the people of the area. At the
same time, we made several scientific
discoveries in the beds that we
worked that we will be reconstructing
over the next two years.
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With regard to
the small dinosaur found by Chris:
is it the thickness of the bones
that leads you to the conclusion
that it is the smallest dinosaur
discovered as opposed to a young,
dinosaur "child"? Also, without
finding the head, how do you determine
if it is a meat eater or a plant
eater?
Answer:
We still may have the head, if
it was tucked under! Probably
we will be able to determine quickly
whether it ate plants or not if
we can determine in which main
group of dinosaurs it belongs.
Of course, it given its small
size, it may have been an omnivore,
like some birds that pick at seeds
but also snatch small lizards.
We know that it is not juvenile,
because several of the bones in
the skeleton that fuse together
when an animal is mature are solidly
fused. Did you know that some
of your bones are just now fusing
in fifth grade?
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Do you think we'll
ever know what colors the dinosaurs
were?
Answer:
I never like to say "never", but
it seems very unlikely that we
will know the color of dinosaurs.
In a few rare cases (shells, insects),
color has been preserved in the
fossil record. But with dinosaurs,
we are extra lucky when we get
an impression of the skin. However,
I think it is fair to say that
some were brightly colored, given
their horns and frills.
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How does the
knowledge gained from paleontology
change or improve an average person's
daily life?
Answer:
Paleontology gives us an appreciation
for the fourth dimension -- time.
It teaches us that the world that
we know best is not the only one
and will not last forever. It shows
us the grandeur of life over time
and all that has once existed. It
stretches our imaginations, and
causes us to wonder. More personally,
paleontology has been able to trace
our own origins, and let us know
where we came from. I think that
a world of three dimensions - that
is, a world without real change
or direction - would be so boring.
As humans, we have only come to
understand the great sweep of time
and see how tiny our place is in
the scheme of things over the last
two centuries. Fossils played an
important role in achieving that
understanding.
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Who funds paleontology
research? Do you receive all your
money from the University of Chicago?
Do you get any other college,
state, federal, or private funds?
Answer:
Funding for this work comes
from National Geographic, science
foundations and interested individuals.
The University pays for my salary
but not for projects like expeditions.
For that, we need to find several
sources and convince them that
we will be successful in the field,
and follow this discovery phase
with good science. I also think
that it is important to engage
the public in our findings by
writing popular articles, reconstructing
our best discoveries, and making
announcements that interest students
and their parents. This is important
because we are more and more living
in an age where science is influencing
our lives, and we need to be sure
that our students find science
as exciting as it really is.
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Which presidential
candidate do each of you like
better - Al Gore or George W.
Bush? Can you absentee vote from
Niger on November 7?
Answer:
We were able to vote absentee
while in Niger, but needed to
vote more than one month ago.
I cannot say exactly how the team
voted - and let's not forget,
there is a third candidate, Mr.
Nader. I know that many of us,
including myself, feel very strongly
about education and health care,
and feel that these two critical
areas be funded in a way that
allows access to all. Many of
us live in the city of Chicago,
and like many American cities
and towns, there is a lot of room
for improvement on those two fronts.
Although we are the richest nation
in the world, it is easy to see
that we need to do more for those
that do not have enough in our
country. Niger, by contrast, is
one of the poorest nations in
the world. They have elected a
popular president who has broad
interests - including paleontology
- and is trying to ease the problems
of the country.
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Will you be returning
to Fako in the future? Have you
been looking for any new dig sites?
Do you think you will ever be
excavating in Asia or Antarctica?
Answer:
We pretty much finished Fako last
time, but we have been looking
in the area for new sites. The
area is very large, and so we
have spent many days driving and
then searching for new sites.
Our best site so far is near the
village of Marandet, some 30 miles
from Fako. Regarding Asia and
Antarctica, YES! Asia is a distinct
possibility in the future - the
Gobi Desert of Mongolia still
has many places to search. I would
like to go to Antarctica, but
that is a little harder to plan.
AND, I doubt I will like the cold
as much as the heat we have here.
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From the "Dinosaur
Giants: Found!" video, it seemed
like the team would be better
off working after dark when
it's much cooler. Did you bring
any lights so that you could
dig at night?
Answer:
Digging at night is not really
a possibility. We did bring
solar lights, but these do not
provide nearly enough light
for excavation. You really need
full sunlight, because the work
is so exact. You need to see
the first chip of bone if you
are working around a skeleton
and nick it. Sometimes you need
to see teeth not much larger
than the head of a pin. Other
times you need to see cracks,
or how glue is affecting a joint.
You need lots of light before
you swing a pick. So it's really
not practical.
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This question
is for Paul: Mr. Taylor is still
teaching at Washington Junior
High. Ever since we started studying
your career and work, he has been
telling us about you as a student.
What we want to know is - do you
remember the hangers that you
gave to him one Christmas? He
says he still uses them!
Answer:
I remember very well Mr. Taylor,
and yes I remember the hangers.
I have fond memories of doing
a large folding poster illustrating
a Shakespeare play. I loved art
and I got to love reading Shakespeare.
I wasn't always the most inspired
student then, and so Mr. Taylor's
class was a real bright spot for
me. His class was a lot of fun.
So, I am delighted that he is
still teaching. Please pass on
my best regards to him. I have
kept the poster all of these years.
I have also been contacted by
Ms. Williams, my fifth grade teacher
at Naper School. She lives in
Florida now.
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What were the
last dinosaurs alive in Africa?
What species were they? Why were
they the last?
Answer:
We know very little about the
last dinosaurs on Africa before
the great extinction, 65 million
years ago. That's because the
only place that you can find them
so far is in Egypt, and the bones
are very fragmentary. One is a
long-necked dinosaur called Aegyptosaurus,
known from a few vertebrae. However,
at 90 million years ago, we have
a better idea. From these beds
we found the giant predator Carcharodontosaurus
and its cousin, the quick-footed
predator Deltadromeus. This level
also is where bones of Spinosaurus
were found, as well as the bones
of a long-necked dinosaur called
Rebbachisaurus. These dinosaurs
are probably similar to those
at the end of the dinosaur era
on Africa, but we will probably
never know these last African
dinosaurs as well as we know our
own - Tyrannosaurus and Triceratops.
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We know that working
as a team can sometimes be difficult.
Have you had any problems working
together? If so, how did you work
it out? Did you talk about teamwork
before you left Chicago?
Answer:
Well, I did more than talk about
teamwork before we left, I wrote
a long memo to all team members
stressing the things that are
important on the trip. But most
important is the morning meetings
- 6:30am sharp. That's where we
talk about the plan for the day,
suggest improvements, air any
complaints, and make any necessary
adjustments. The team has worked
very smoothly this year. That's
because more than half of the
team have been on previous expeditions,
and because the other half have
turned out to be exceptional.
David, the undergraduate, the
doctor Tim - it's as if they are
pros on their first expedition.
Being a good team member means,
first and foremost, thinking about
the other guy. Doing those little
things because you notice something
needs to get done. It has been
a nearly flawless field season
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How high is the
highest sand dune you've encountered?
How high was the "slip and slide"
sand dune and why did you choose
it? Also, how deep did Hans sink
when he was walking up the sand
dune?
Answer:
That dune was one of the highest
in the area - about 100 feet tall.
We picked that sand dune because
it had a very steep face on one
side and was near our water supply.
Hans sunk in a little while walking
up the dune. But in general, the
dunes have been relatively hard
in this area. Some you can drive
over without sinking. Others you
sink immediately if you try to
drive over them. Driving over
dunes is a dangerous business,
because you don't know when the
other side is better for a slip
and slide than a truck! By the
way, I noticed some little pink
marks on Hans' arms today - healing,
but fond, memories of "slip and
slide" day.
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Does Niger have
an elected president and how are
their laws made? Explain if any
laws have affected the expedition.
Answer:
You bet on both counts. Niger
just elected President Tandja
for a five year term by a landslide
margin. We met him twice already,
and will have the chance to meet
him several times before we leave
in the capitol city Niamey. Indeed,
a law about which government body
regulates fossils and how fossils
should be regulated was passed
in 1997, just after our field
season. Niger has one of the best
fossil laws on the books - in
fact, better than our own. In
the USA, if you find a Tyrannosaurus
skull in your back yard, you can
sell it for money, or just break
it into a million pieces with
a hammer. It's your choice. In
Niger, all fossils belong to the
people of the country, and all
work on fossils must be approved
by an agency in charge of regulating
research. That way, no fossils
are sold, no fossils disappear,
and no fossils are broken by people
that don't have any experience
working with them.
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Do you work in
one big team in one spot or do
you split up into separate teams?
If you do, how do you decide who
works where and where does Dr.
Lyman go? Do you have problem
sharing tools and supplies?
Answer:
We most often work as a single
team when we are prospecting in
big open areas/ For this kind
of job, you move as quickly as
you can, dispersing into an area
so that you are not walking near
anyone else. Doc Tim does the
same; just because he knows how
to fix our bones doesn't mean
that he doesn't love finding dinosaur
bones! At other times, we work
in groups, especially when excavating
or collecting bones. The teams
and what we plan to do are all
discussed in the breakfast meeting
and, if necessary, at lunch. This
year we have plenty of tools.
So the only problem is to remember
to pack enough of them in the
truck before leaving!
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(alternate question)
We know the Sahara was once jungle-like.
What caused the change in the
environment? When and over how
much time did this happen?
Answer:
This area was never truly jungle-like,
but it was a lot wetter. There
were lakes of great size just
a few thousand years ago. Shifting
weather patters and the melting
of the glaciers resulted in the
drying of the Sahara region. There
just isn't enough moisture passing
over the region, and there are
no tall mountains to cause the
rain in passing clouds to drop.
Of course, you might then ask,
what caused the glaciers to melt?
Believe it or not, some of the
reasons are tied to small wobbling
in the orbit of the earth about
the sun that affects how much
sunlight hits the earth during
the year. Anyway, climate and
weather are in such a delicate
balance that the only thing that
you can be sure of is that it
will change over thousands of
years, and even quicker.
Della
Montgomery's 2nd grade class
Morrisonville Elementary, Morrisonville,
IL
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How do you plan
to keep (preserve) the fossils
now they are leaving the desert
(environment)?
Answer:
First, jacket them in plaster
(big ones), or wrap them gently
and box them (small ones). Then
we pack them into a huge metal
cargo container that makes the
journey by boat across the ocean,
then by train across the USA to
Chicago, and then to the laboratory
by truck.
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How can you tell
if you have found a baby dinosaur
in a discovery or if it is an
brand new species?
Answer:
Baby dinosaurs can be identified
easiest if you find an adult nearby.
The bones look very similar, but
they are just a lot smaller. Here
are also bone fusions that occur
when a dinosaur becomes an adult.
In fact, your bones are not all
completely fused until after elementary
school. Regarding new species,
you need to know your dinosaur
species and bones very well so
that you can recognize a new species.
It's bones will look different
than any other so far known. It
may be similar to another dinosaur
- we expect that - but not exactly
the same. In case we forget what
some dinosaurs look like, we bring
a big folder with hundreds of
pictures of dinosaur bones into
the field. It stays in our library
tent.
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Why are there
armed guards, are the fossils
really, really valuable?
Answer:
Niger doesn't have enough gas
to allow police to drive around
all day like we typically have
in the United States. Also, we
are now quite famous here in Niger
- sort of like a popular rock
group. A lot of people know that
we are here. Then you have to
think about security, because
you want to make sure nothing
is missing. The guards stay in
our camp when we are gone and
sometimes travel with us.
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Why is the skull
of a fossil the most important
part of a discovery?
Answer:
The skull is the most delicate
complicated part of the animal.
It often tells ou the most information.
For example, with the skull alone,
you can tell what the animal ate
and often what it's closest relatives
are. With a toe bone, you would
have more doubts. The skull is
always the hardest part to find
complete and attached to a skeleton,
because it is so delicate. It
is made of thin bones and teeth.
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Has the sand storms
interfered much with your prospecting/exploring?
Answer:
So far, nope! That's partly
because we planned the trip so
we would not be in the desert
when the wind is normally blowing
hardest. The chance for a storm
is greatest this month - November.
That's why we started early and
worked some of the sandiest areas
first. We did get some bad wind,
and a surprising amount of wind
at camp 3 near Marandet. However,
our tents withstood the storm
and we continued working.
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Question from
parent
You have been very patient in
your replies to the children,
are you going to write a children's
book about your experiences?
Answer:
Answering these questions
really has been a lot of fun.
I think that we will write several
books from this electronic experience
in the field. Many of those will
be based on our conversations
and on the stories and photographs
we have posted to the website.
Many thanks for your questions
and for tuning in!
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